Attachment Theory

Attachment and bonding are important to consider within the context of the lifespan.

Attachment defined:

• “The ability to form emotional bonds with other people” (Hutchison, 2017, p. 360). Attachment is crucial to the emotional development of infants (Hutchison, 2017).

Bowlby devised three phases that occur after the separation of a child from its mother (Robbins et al., 2012):

(1) Infant protests in anger due to the mother’s absence.
(2) When crying does not result in the mother returning, the infant becomes depressed.
(3) Detachment: Uses the defense mechanism- repression.

Bowlby viewed attachment and instinctual drives as two processes that are distinct from each other (Robbins, et al., 2012). The lack of attachment behavior by the age of one is considered a “developmental problem.” He viewed separation anxiety as universal; attachment behaviors also occur in other stages of life (Robbins, et al., 2012).

Separation Anxiety:

• First experienced between the ages of 6-8 months when baby is distressed from being separated from a primary caregiver.

Protest Phase:

• The child protests angrily when separated from the primary caregiver.

Despair/Depression:

• The child’s protests (crying) result in depression when the primary caregiver does not return.

Detachment Phase:

• The child becomes detached/depressed and adapts by using repression (defense mechanism). An adaptive response can become a concern if used too much.

Bowlby and Ainsworth emphasized the attachment of the mother and infant. Still, please remember that the best way to view attachment is from a contemporary perspective of “parental” attachment versus the sex of the parent.

Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) was a developmental psychologist who is known for the “Strange Situation.” She developed to observe infant interactions with the mother and a stranger. Ainsworth and her colleagues created three types of infant attachment, and her work has been updated with a fourth.

Classification of Infant Attachment (Feldman, 2017, p. 261):

The research pioneers in this area focused solely on the relationship between the infant and mother. Research suggests infants’ attachment to their caregivers is crucial to their development. Remember to examine attachment from a cultural perspective. In some cultures, family members play an important role in caring for infants, and the infant may have multiple primary caregivers.

Infancy

The development of infants is influenced by the environment, including parent/caretakers, culture, ethnicity, geographic location, socioeconomic status, quality of nutrition, stress, etc. This process has been called a “developmental niche” (Hutchison, 2017). Also, consider the importance of brain development during infancy.

Physical development

• By three months
  • Able to distinguish a stranger’s face from the face of a primary caregiver/parent.
• 4 to 7 months
  • Able to recognize emotional expressions, including anger, fear, and happiness.
• 5 to 6 months
  • Controlled use of hands to explore objects in the environment.

Source of the following table: Exhibit 11.6 Windows of Milestone Achievement in Months (Hutchison, 2017, p.355)

Cognitive development theory

Jean Piaget: Stages of Cognitive Development

(Source: Hutchison, 2017)

*Names of substages vary based on the source.

psychosocial and emotional development

Psychosocial Stages

1. Trust vs. mistrust (0-1): the infant must have basic needs met consistently to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.

Emotional development

According to research, parents/caretakers play a vital role in how infants manage their emotions; sleep is important (Hutchison, 2017). Infants are born with their own personalities; temperament is also an issue to consider with emotional development.

Social Development

Play

• Solitary Play (Birth-2 Years): At this age, children are not interested in engaging with others through play and will typically play alone.

Sexual Development

Source of the following content: 11.2: Sexual Development in Early Childhood is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Susan Rahman with Nathan Bowman, Dahmitra Jackson, Anna Lushtak, Remi Newman, & Prateek Sunder.

Infants are capable of erections and vaginal lubrication even before birth. In utero, infant self-stimulation has been observed too, but there is some debate about whether this behavior is purposeful. As early as 16 weeks, erectile response in male fetuses has been viewed with ultrasound.

Arousal can signal overall physical contentment and stimulation that accompanies feeding or warmth. Infants begin to explore their bodies and touch their genitals as soon as they have the sufficient motor skills. This stimulation is for comfort or to relieve tension rather than to reach orgasm.

Congenital conditions

Turner syndrome:

• Syndrome in which female infants are born with one, rather than two X (female) chromosomes, causing developmental anomalies.

Klinefelter syndrome:

• Syndrome in which male infants are born with an extra X (female) chromosome and typically causes incomplete masculinization and other anomalies.

Self-Check

The source of the details in the answer descriptions is from Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Chapter 10 (open educational resource).

Toddlerhood and early childhood

Toddlerhood consists of the age range of 12 months to 36 months. During the age range of birth to three years of age, there is a rapid rate of growth. For instance, the brain reaches 75% of its adult weight at around two years old.

Source of the following content: 11.2: Physical Development is shared under a not declared licensed and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.

Children between the ages of two and six years tend to grow around three inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight each year. The average 6-year-old weighs about 46 pounds and is about 46 inches tall. The 3-year-old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short arms, and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened, and body proportions have become more like those of adults.

This growth rate is slower than that of infancy and is accompanied by a reduced appetite between the ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead to the development of poor eating habits.

Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days are filled with moving, jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a playground.

Toddlerhood Physical Development Self-Check

Cognitive development theory

Jean Piaget: Stages of Cognitive Development

psychosocial and emotional development

Psychosocial Stages

1. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2): mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.
2. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5): preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself.”

Emotional Development

“Terrible Twos”

It is normal for some children to experience what is referred to as temper tantrums. Reflect on your understanding of a child’s development at this age and reasons children may experience challenges with regulating their emotions. According to Erikson, this developmental level faces the conflict of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. At this age, they cannot verbally communicate their frustrations, which can manifest by engaging in physical behaviors and screaming. While this behavior is considered normal development, some toddlers can engage in aggressive behaviors that are not considered normal development. Children in this stage of development can engage in retaliation, including (not limited to) biting others, kicking others, and hitting others. These behaviors are considered retaliation when a child uses these behaviors “intentionally.” Aggression can increase in early childhood.

Children ages three to five can recognize and label simple emotions. By first grade, most children can learn how to regulate their emotions well enough to learn, follow classroom rules, and develop friendships.

Social Development:

• Toddlers can establish relationships with peers and need help structuring their play with each other. Across cultures, young children’s friendship groups are likely to be segregated by sex. Around age three, children are more motivated to be accepted by peers. Children during early childhood have a growing capacity in understanding “self” in relation to others.

Play:

• Play is universal across all cultures and an important aspect of a child’s development.
  • Learning Play: Play focused on skills related to thinking and language.
  • Sociodramatic Play: This type of play involves children engaging in symbolic play as a group with shared symbolism (fantasy play).
  • Symbolic Play: Children use their imagination when engaging in this type of play. Some of the primary functions of this type of play include cognitive development, exploring reality, and developing peer culture (shared experiences).

sexual development

Source of the following content: 11.2: Sexual Development in Early Childhood is adapted and shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Susan Rahman with Nathan Bowman, Dahmitra Jackson, Anna Lushtak, Remi Newman, & Prateek Sunder.

Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for all children. Curiosity about the body and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood as well. As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take off their clothes and touch each other. Masturbation is common for both boys and girls. Parents/caregivers should respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel guilty about their bodies. Instead, messages about what is going on and the appropriate time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate. Although parents often become concerned when a child shows sexual behavior, such as touching another child’s private parts, these behaviors are not uncommon in developing children.

Most sexual play is an expression of children’s natural curiosity and should not be a cause for concern or alarm. In general, “typical” childhood sexual play and exploration:

• Occurs between children who play together regularly and know each other well.
• Occurs between children of the same general age and physical size.
• Is spontaneous and unplanned.
• Is infrequent.
• Is voluntary (the children agreed to the behavior, none of the involved children seem uncomfortable or upset).
• Is easily diverted when parents tell children to stop and explain privacy rules.

Some childhood sexual behaviors indicate more than harmless curiosity, and are considered sexual behavior problems. Sexual behavior problems may pose a risk to the safety and well-being of the child and other children.

Sexual behavior problems include any act that:

• Is clearly beyond the child’s developmental stage
• Involves threats, force, or aggression
• Involves children of widely different ages or abilities
• Provokes strong emotional reactions such as anger or anxiety in the child

Parents and/or guardians play a pivotal role in helping their children develop healthy attitudes and behaviors towards sexuality. Although talking with children about sex may feel outside the parental comfort zone, there are many resources available to help parents begin and continue the conversation about sexuality. When parents are reluctant to talk to children about sex and anatomy, children find alternative sources from their peers, internet and porn sites. These sources may lead to misinformation. Providing close supervision, and providing clear, positive messages about boundaries and privacy are crucial as children move through the stages of childhood. By talking openly with children about relationships, intimacy, and sexuality, parents and guardians can foster their healthy growth and development.

Resource:

• Understanding and Coping with Sexual Behavior Problems in Children

References

Feldman, R.S. (2017). Life span development (3rd ed.). Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780134474717/
Hutchison, E.D. (2017). Essentials of human behavior: Integrating person, environment, and the life course (2nd. ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Robbins, S., Chatterjee, P., Canda, E., & Leibowitz, G. (2012). Contemporary human behavior theory: A critical perspective for social work (3rd ed.). Pearson.