10 Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Development Theories

Thomas and Schwarzbaum (2017) indicated the following: “Culture is one of the most influential determinants of identity, and therapists who do not address cultural meanings in their clients may be engaging in oppressive practices rather than therapeutic ones” (p.3). Social workers should engage in culturally informed practice. Cultural experiences impact development, and social workers must proactively learn about different cultures. Cultural humility recognizes we do not know everything about another person’s cultural experiences.

NASW Code of Ethics:

1.05 Cultural Competence

“(a) Social workers should demonstrate understanding of culture and its function in human behavior and society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures.

(b) Social workers should demonstrate knowledge that guides practice with clients of various cultures and be able to demonstrate skills in the provision of culturally informed services that empower marginalized individuals and groups. Social workers must take action against oppression, racism, racism, discrimination, and inequities, and acknowledge personal privilege.

(c) Social workers should demonstrate awareness and cultural humility by engaging in critical self-reflection (understanding their own bias and engaging in self-correction); recognizing clients as experts of their own culture; committing to life-long learning; and holding institutions accountable for advancing cultural humility.

(d) Social workers should obtain education about and demonstrate understanding of the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical ability.

(e) Social workers who provide electronic social work services should be aware of cultural and socioeconomic differences among clients’ use of and access to electronic technology and seek to prevent such potential barriers. Social workers should assess cultural, environmental, economic, mental or physical ability, linguistic, and other issues that may affect the delivery or use of these services” (NASW Code of Ethics).

The NASW Standards and Indicators for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice brochure defines culture as “Culture includes, but is not limited to, history, traditions, values, family systems, and artistic expressions of client groups served in the different cultures related to race and ethnicity, immigration and refugee status, tribal status, religion and spirituality, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, social class, and abilities.”

Council on Social Work Education Competency 2: Advance Human Rights and Social, Racial, Economic, and Environmental Justice:

• “Social workers understand that every person regardless of position in society has fundamental human rights. Social workers are knowledgeable about the global intersecting and ongoing injustices throughout history that result in oppression and racism, including social work’s role and response Social workers critically evaluate the distribution of power and privilege in society in order to promote social, racial, economic, and environmental justice by reducing inequities and ensuring dignity and respect for all. Social workers advocate for and engage in strategies to eliminate oppressive structural barriers to ensure that social resources, rights, and responsibilities are distributed equitably and that civil, political, economic, social, and cultural human rights are protected” (Council on Social Work Education [CSWE], 2022, p. 9).

Racial identity and ethnic identity are sometimes used interchangeably. Ethnic identity development from the research literature differs from racial identity development research. The focus of racial identity is oppression and racism, whereas the focus of ethnic identity is one’s shared sense of identity/connection with others. Phinney and Ong (2007) defined ethnic identity as: “a sense of peoplehood within a group, a culture, and a particular setting” (p. 271). The psychological study of ethnic identity is informed by Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages, with identity as a process.

Resource: Summary of Stages of Racial Identity Development

Jean Phinney’s Three Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development

Dr. Phinney’s research about ethnic identity is shaped by Erickson’s psychosocial stages, whereby identity is viewed as a process with stages. Her work is also informed by James Marcia’s adolescent identity development model. Her model includes the following stages:

1. Unexamined ethnic identity: At this stage, exploring one’s ethnicity might not be important to them.  Familial ethnicity can be the primary influencer of one’s ethnicity during this stage, and the individual at this stage may not necessarily put much thought into their own connections and shared sense of identity with particular groups, culture, or particular settings.
2. Ethnic identity search: During this stage, there is more awareness about ethnicity including exploration about one’s ethnicity.  During this stage this awareness about ethnicity also exposes individuals to make-meaning of their own ethnic heritage to include contrasting their familial ethnicity and learning where their own ethnic experiences fall within these experiences.  As indicated by the title of this stage, they are searching for answers.  Some during this stage can also experience a crisis regarding ethnicity, including being exposed to difference, oppression, racism, and other “isms.”
3. Ethnic identity achievement: After searching and finding answers, the next stage is identity achievement.  One feels more secure in understanding their own connections to their ethnicity; there is an increased awareness and understanding of the ethnic identities of others.

Cultural Change

• Assimilation:
  • Change one’s culture to align with the dominant culture.
• Accommodation:
  • Partial or selective cultural change.
• Acculturation:
  • Mutual sharing of culture.

Resource: Cultural Competence, Awareness, Sensitivity, Humility, and Responsiveness: What’s The Difference (The New Social Worker online magazine)

References

Association of Social Work Boards. (2018). Content outlines and KSAs: Social work licensing examination masters exam.Retrieved from https://www.aswb.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/2018-Masters.pdf

Council on Social Work Education. (2022). Educational policy and accreditation standards for baccalaureate and master’s social work programs. https://www.cswe.org/getmedia/bb5d8afe-7680-42dc-a332-a6e6103f4998/2022-EPAS.pdf

Hutchison, E.D. (2017). Essentials of human behavior: Integrating person, environment, and the life course. SAGE Publications, Inc.

Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271-281. https://doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271

Thomas, A.J., & Schwarzbaum, S.E. (2017). Culture and identity: Life stories for counselors and therapists (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.